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UN Performance Problems UN Management Accountability Struggles Where is the Rule of Law? Inadequate UN Oversight Recent Developments
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Introductory
quotes "The
Capacity Study is finished
.
We have
diagnosed the [sickness of the UN development system of technical
co-operation] and written a prescription.
.
. Governments created
this machine - which [has become] probably the most complex organization
in the world.
. Briefly, it is
built up of the administrative structures of the United Nations and its
component parts,
. and of
about a dozen Specialized Agencies.
In theory, it is under the control of about thirty separate
governing bodies
. At the
headquarters level, there is
. no central
co-ordinating organization [to exercise effective control]
. [and there is also]
an extraordinary complex of regional and sub-regional offices, and
.
field offices in over ninety developing countries.
. Who controls this
'machine'? So far the
evidence shows that governments do not, and also that the machine is
incapable of intelligently controlling itself. This is not because it lacks
intelligent and capable officials, but because it it is so organized that
managerial direction is impossible.
In other words, the machine as a whole has become unmanageable in
the strictest sense of the word.
As a result, it is becoming slower and more unwieldy, like some
prehistoric monster." A study of the capacity of the United Nations development system, 2 vols., DP/5, United Nations, Geneva, 1969, Vol. 1, pp. i-iii. [Note: also known as "the Jackson report" after its principal author, or as "the Capacity Study."] "Global
problems do not respect national frontiers
. No single
government can put these things right on its own. Who can? Call in the United
Nations. That is
the theory. [The UN charter
seeks]
. to make the world
not just a more peaceful place but a nicer one. Since then a vast and unwieldy
network of specialized agencies has grown up in part to put these noble
aims into practice. There are
now more than 40 such agencies
. They employ over
50,000 professionals in 620 duty stations around the world. Not even the UN secretariat in New
York knows how much the whole thing costs. Most estimates start at around $6
billion a year. The world
seems to be getting poor value for it.
." "The United Nations agencies: A case for emergency treatment", The Economist, December 2, 1989, pp. 27-28, 30 [27]. [Note: the article offered a set of sensible suggestions for improvement as of 1989. At present, most if not almost all still seem to have been ignored.]
"The explanation for the endless growth of [UN]
programmes and projects lies in the bureaucratic culture .
which is
peculiar to the nature of the institution. Populated on the one hand by
idealists who believe everything they do is valuable, and on the other
hand by time servers who are there to get what they can, the UN has
degenerated into a place where symbolism is reality, where people believe
that saying something can make it true, where discussing a problem is
thought to amount to solving it." Anne Applebaum, "Is the UN really necessary?", The Spectator (UK), 31 July 1993. [Note: Ms. Applebaum, is also the author of,
inter alia, a very well-received recent new book, Gulag: A
history, Doubleday, New York, 2003.]
"Challenges that must be globally managed keep
popping up: genetic engineering, AIDS, and global terrorist networks. Yet
the global landscape
has dramatically changed in the last 50 years, but the institutions
serving the world have not. The array of institutions is bewildering. Within the U. N. system alone,
there are 112 agencies. More
than 20 agencies deal with water, for example.
. Functions overlap, mandates conflict, and each
agency has its own standard of accountability, [or unaccountability] to
member governments.
. The institutions cannot reform themselves. Two generations of institutional
contamination and tenured self-interest ensure that this deadlock
continues. But this lack of
coherence damages their collective credibility, frustrates their donors
and owners, and gives rise to public cynicism. There is a consensus that
something must be done, but no consensus on how to go about
it.' Mike Moore, "Multilateral meltdown", Foreign Policy, March/April 2003, p. 75. [Note: Mr. Moore was Director General of the World Trade Organization from 1999 to 2002 and is a former Prime Minister of New Zealand. He is the author of A world without walls: Freedom, development, free trade, and global governance, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK, 2003.]
Chronological
quotes "
the question
remains: how in practice to revitalize a flagging organization which is
somehow out of tune with the needs and moods of the times?
I believe that a
shock treatment is called for and the present moment provides an unique
opportunity to apply that treatment
I have come to the
conclusion that the only practical way to revitalize the organization is
through a major consolidation and regrouping. This must be no mere cosmetic
surgery. It would require
some drastic staff reduction -- up to 50 percent in some areas -- and a
major redeployment of UN resources in those tasks in which it can be most
useful to its members and the world community." Maurice Strong, then the
Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment, in UN document A/C.5/SR 1433, 9 November 1971, as
quoted in Shirley Hazard, Defeat of an ideal: A study of the
self-destruction of the United Nations, Macmillan, London, 1973, pp.
112-113. "Experience indicates that the powers of senior
[UN] officials have grown, as the central powers of the Secretary-General
have been eroded. A senior
official, who is supported by either a great power or an influential group
of countries
, enjoys very considerable authority. Customs, procedures, and political
factors have limited in practice the ability of the Secretary-General to
impose his will on a recalcitrant senior official. Indeed, he is often compelled to
negotiate with senior officials proposed changes of jurisdiction, or
proposed transfers. It should [also] be emphasized that the
director (D-2) posts are the most influential executive posts in the
Secretariat as regards daily operational functions. We have already noted that many
such posts change hands only between nationals of the same country, the
same region, and some times the same group of countries. This practice of establishing
de facto national or regional preserves in the Secretariat cannot
help but have a marked adverse impact
" Theodor
Meron, The United Nations Secretariat: The Rules and the Practice,
Chapter 5, "Erosion of the
power of the Secretary-General: The new barons and national
preserves", D.C. Heath,
Lexington, Mass., 1977, pp. 91,99.
[Note: Mr. Meron is a former delegate to
the UN, international law professor at New York University, and currently
serves as president of the UN tribunal for the former Yugoslavia.] "I have been intrigued
. by the question of
who is in charge at the UN; who sets the standards and values of the
Organization? Who says what
the UN is, what it does, what it cannot do?
. Events
. indicate [that there is no]
monolithic power structure at the UN.
. The Secretary-General
. is
constrained by the political clout of his closest collaborators,
particularly the Department Heads.
. further complicated by [growing
exercise by the] Fifth Committee and General Assembly of managerial
responsibility because [they are unable to ensure] that managers in fact
do [their jobs.] In an
environment of shifting power relationships, where it is increasingly
difficult to fix responsibility, it is important that staff have a strong
voice, lest it be forgotten
by those whose only interest is self-interest.
.
policy derives from an accretion of small decisions and actions up and
down the management line.
. There is no thread
of coherence running through the whole. At any given time, a special
assistant
. may be as important in establishing values and policies as is
the Secretary-General himself.
Such people define the Organization through our failure to do so,
through our acquiescence."
Lowell Flanders, "The future of the UN . In whose hands?", address [by the President of the Staff Union] at a preparatory meeting of the United Nations Community Forum, Secretariat News (NY), April 16, 1979, p. 10. "In the 13 years that I have been with DTCD,
formerly OTC, formerly BTAO, formerly etc., we have been reassessed,
redefined, reoriented, readjusted, rearranged, reordered, reduced and, of
course, reorganized. We've
been aligned and realigned, maligned, streamlined and asinined. All in the name of progress and
increased efficiency. It
seems to be the curse of bureaucracy that every new situation is met by
reorganization.
There comes a time, however, when you wonder if
the people responsible for all this needless turmoil will ever be held
accountable.
Where's accountability in the United
Nations? Who takes
responsibility? Where does
the buck stop?
at the UN it
does not seem to matter how severe the financial mismanagement or how
erratic and bungling the reorganizations -- no one in management either at the
Departmental or central level is held accountable. Perhaps the most cruel and bitter irony in this
entire masquerade is that in October 1984 the Fifth Committee approved $86
million to build lavish new conference facilities in Addis Ababa. This in the face of overwhelming
human misery and starvation.
Where's the accountability?" Lowell Flanders, "A.D. 65", Secretariat News
(New York), December 1984, pp. 10-11.
"Mr. Pιrez de Cuιllar summed up his 10 years
as 'a most productive decade.'
The UN had
'moved from the periphery to near the centre of
international relations'. '
a slow but meticulous process of
institutional self-analysis, combined with efforts to 'streamline' the
Secretariat, had resulted in a rejuvenated UN,' he
stated. Activity, not argument, had thus answered
questions about the UN that had 'troubled the public through much of its
existence'
he continued.
'The effectiveness of the United Nations can no longer be in
doubt.'" "Goodbye to Pιrez de Cuιllar: A 'most productive decade at the UN," UN Chronicle, March 1992, pp. 6-8. [see next item of the same date from the same publication.] "With a new Secretary-General, reform of the
United Nations is in the air at
[UN] Headquarters. Since September, intensive discussions have
taken place on reforming the work and structure of the world body. Under scrutiny was a plan worked
out by 22 industrial and developing countries, including the five
permanent Security Council members, intended to strengthen the Secretariat
and increase the Secretary-General's authority. The new plan disapproves of
the
Organization's 'top-heavy' administration, under which 30 to 40
high-ranking officials report directly to the Secretary General. That structure grew over the years
in a series of 'ad hoc responses to specific problems.' The plan speaks of 'a widespread consensus'
that the UN must be restructured
" "Reform proposals circulate during 46th Assembly:
UN faces 'dangerously precarious' financial situation,' UN Chronicle, March
1992, pp. 9-10. [see preceding item of the same date from the same publication.] "
When you cross the railway tracks that divide the international
quarter from the rest of Geneva, you leave behind the banks and watches
for an equally unreal world of plate-glass-and-marble buildings,
international hotels, and unrealizable goals. When they are not publishing documents, [the
many UN system agencies in Geneva] are competing, mostly with one
another. .
if [some topic] is in fashion, everyone wants a part of it.
Looking up 'women' -- women in
work (ILO), women in health (WHO), women refugees (UNHCR), women and rural
agriculture (FAO), women and human rights (Human Rights Commission), women
in Europe [ECE] -- in a
cross-section of budgets produces [this sort of] overlap. So does 'environment' and so does
'population control.' Often these fashions are provoked by
conferences, like the recent population conference in Cairo
One shudders to think of what will
follow after the "Social
Summit" in March 1995
Still, the collecting of statistics provides
the most fertile ground for overlap of all.
If, in the field, UN agencies
and others do sometimes work very well, in Geneva they are metaphorically
stumbling over one another's calculators.
" Anne Applebaum, "An anarchy of abounding acronyms",
The Spectator (UK), 12 November 1994, pp. 9-11.
"Somewhere
I once read an article listing
'25 ways to tell that a company is about to go bankrupt.' Along with the building of a new
corporate headquarters, I seem to remember that
large, expensive,
self-congratulatory social functions
. were considered one of the surest
signs of impending collapse.
It that is so, the United Nation's 50th anniversary celebrations
are worth a closer look. Secretary-General Butros Butros-Ghali said that
[despite new challenges] the UN has not been given the resources
required. Unfortunately, [he] was only half right in his
analysis of the UN's financial predicament.
. While it is true that the UN is
approaching bankruptcy,
. What the UN needs is to stop frittering its
resources on programmes and departments that are unnecessary, unimportant,
and extravagantly wasteful. If the 166 world leaders
. gathered in New
York this week want to see [the UN] last another 50 years, perhaps they
should stop preening for the cameras and
return to the UN's core
business and put an end to 50 years of wasteful diversification."
Anne Applebaum, "What a waste -- and not just the birthday
party", The Spectator (UK), October 24, 1995. "Although the United Nations is essentially an
enormous information processing and sharing machine, it
almost never
addresses frontally
. the quality of [its] data, the value added
and the cost-effectiveness
. A report on ['Restructuring and revitalization
. ' (A-50-697) hides] these key questions under layers of esoteric
bureaucratese.
A section entitled 'Documentation' [says] 'the
documentation crisis in the United Nations is not a new phenomenon.
despite repeated analyses and discussions, the crisis continues and
indeed, may have grown more acute.
It seriously impacts the ability of intergovernmental bodies to
perform their mandated functions
Although member states have complained
insistently,
the Secretariat [also] can have no interest in bringing out
a document long after the due date.
. 'The roots of the documentation crisis are
systemic.
Without a
cultural change in the way business is done in the economic, social, and
related sectors, where the tendency has been to increase the number of
bodies as well as the frequency with which they meet, it is unlikely that
the documentation crisis will abate.'" "UN economic & social sector reform ignores critical issues of information flow and use", International Documents Review (New York), November 27, 1995, pp. 4-5. "This volume's point of departure was an
overextended United Nations devolving responsibilities toward regional
arrangements for security functions and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) for the delivery of many services.
.. in a world with limited
resources and more than enough challenges, a better international division
of labour was essential.
Rather than bleating, as a die-hard member of the UN fan club
might, about the inability of the world organization to perform, it seemed
more reasonable and practical to examine the dynamics of what could well
be enhanced global governance.
Within this context, it makes more sense to ask who does what best,
or at least better, than to lament the disappearance of a mythical UN
system powerful and well-equipped enough to undertake every task.
. The United Nations, regional security
arrangements and service-providing NGOs have made a difference. It is time to move beyond
simplistic notions of UN 'subcontracting' in the direction of hard-headed
task-sharing and a better international division of labour. This would benefit donors and
recipients, institutions and peoples." Edwin W.
Smith, and Thomas G., Weiss, "UN task-sharing: Toward or away from global
governance", in Thomas G. Weiss, ed., Beyond UN subcontracting:
Task-sharing with regional security arrangements and service-providing
NGOs, St. Martins, New York, 1998, pp. 227-255 [227, 255].
"
agency leaders face many obstacles to
improving the way agencies work together. [About 30 WTO members who cannot afford a
mission In Geneva suggested a modest trust fund to pay for them to come
for a "Geneva week" of briefings every year.] I set about to raise that trust
fund and, foolishly contacted
other agencies for donations.
All hell broke loose. All the agencies wanted credit for
filling this gap in institutional governance. As a consequence, agencies and
countries now compete to host once neglected groups of countries, at a
cost of millions of dollars.
The issue never seems to be about serving countries or customers;
the real question is whether a program increases an agency's
influence." Mike Moore, "Multilateral meltdown", Foreign Policy, March/April 2003, p. 75. [Note: Mr. Moore was the Director General of the World Trade Organization from 1999 to 2002 and is a former Prime Minister of New Zealand. He is the author of A world without walls: Freedom, development, free trade, and global governance, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK, 2003. ]
"The check is not in the mail but a U.N.
official lobbied President Bush for a $1 billion interest-free loan so the
United Nations could renovate its crumbling headquarters that marks the
Manhattan skyline.
. Completed in 1952, the distinctive glass
skyscraper has water dripping through its roof, toxic asbestos lining the ceiling tiles,
no sprinklers in case of fire and erratic heating and cooling systems.
. The new plan calls for building a 30-story
office tower in a nearby park that would house staff during the renovation
and then become a permanent home for U.N. agencies now renting space in
other buildings. An interest-free loan would enable the 191
nations in the world body to finance the project over 25 to 30 years
." Evelyn Leopold, " UN lobbies for $1 billion loan to fix glass tower", Reuters, July 14, 2003. [Note: the UN physical infrastructure is also troubled, but it is worth noting that this major project seeks to double the size of UN headquarters as two skyscrapers, even as the UN complains of its many severe staffing cuts of the past decade] "European leaders took their turn around a
giant oval table, with each president or prime minister given four minutes
to offer a position on the contentious draft of Europe's future
constitution. This 'tour de table'
. was a landmark event
for the European Union
. But the meeting
. exposed the enormous
challenges facing the EU as it prepares to expand to a union of 25
countries representing 450 million people.
. Officials complained that they had wasted time
listening to prepared speeches that stated positions everyone already
knew. 'There is a problem of methodology' said a
foreign minister
. 'If everyone takes his turn repeating their positions
it can take a very long time.'
The minister
. called it a 'heavy' process. The meeting Saturday appeared to confirm some
analysts' fears that decision-making and spontaneous debate are unwieldy
or impossible when 25 leaders sit around a table." Thomas Fuller, "The growing EU problem: 25 leaders and 25 opinions: Rome talks highlight issue of 'methodology'", International Herald Tribune, October 6, 2003. [Note: This new EU is not such a 'heavy' process at all when compared with the UN, which has almost eight times as many members (currently 191), and has been calmly engaging in such rituals in its dozens or hundreds of governing and subsidiary bodies for a mind-numbing six decades. "Payments to the U.N. regular budget for
2003 The following 11 Member States have paid their
regular budget assessments in full in advance. [list provided
] The following 29 Member states have paid their
regular budget assessments in full by 31 January 2003, the end of the 30
day due period specified in Financial Regulation 3.4 [list provided
...] As of 21 October 2003, 75 additional Member
States have paid their 2003 assessment in full after the 31 January 2003
deadline [list
provided]." "Honor Roll 2003", United Nations, /www.un.org/News/ossg/hon2003.htm , October 23, 2003. [Note: this status report shows that although the United States is consistently identified as a UN dues-paying "deadbeat", 76 other Member States, of the 191 total, also had that dubious distinction on this date. The detailed listings showed that Canada was the biggest "on time, in full" paid-up country, with its assessment of $34,536,208, while many other payees who paid only pay the minimum annual assessment of $13,502. Actually, one non-Member State, the Holy See, got off most easily -- its annual assessment is $3,412.] "President George W. Bush's turn to the United
Nations for help in Iraq was a welcome, if belated, recognition that
global policing can acquire legitimacy only through multinational
endorsement. But the record
of the major political bodies of the UN
. has little to show that this is
the place to find that sort of legitimacy in the 21st
century. The [General] Assembly is usually mired in
speechmaking. The [Security[
Council is increasingly perceived as a relic of the cold war. These are not just the sentiments
of neo-conservatives in Washington; they were voiced most recently by Kofi
Annan, the secretary general of the United Nations. In an unusually candid report
issued on Sept. 8, Annan challenged the UN to make radical reforms.
. The real task is to open a serious debate on
what a multilateral institution should be today, and what rules and
instruments it should have.
As the world's leaders arrive for the General Assembly this week,
they would do well to present some concrete ideas on what the United
Nations should be. Then,
before leaving, they should charge a council of eminent people to work
with Annan to remake it." "Restructuring the UN", International Herald Tribune, September 22, 2003. "Each year on Sept. 26, [the European Union and
the Council of Europe observe a Day of Languages as part of a 1991 policy]
. 'to celebrate the linguistic and cultural diversity of Europe.' What remains is a current festival
of pompousness, misunderstanding and
misrepresentation. The variety of [European languages]
. surely
is a wealth, but it is also a burden.
. [It impedes] the emergence of a
European public sphere where political and cultural debate can be carried
on beyond borders.
.
The EU language propaganda
. presses young
Europeans to learn languages, from infancy and for life, as many as
possible.
. In
fact, the policy of the EU institutions strengthens a single language:
English.
. If the Union wants to counteract [this
monopoly, it could consider]
.
giving priority to two or three other languages.
. Such realism in any case is to be preferred to
the hypocrisy with which the EU and the Council now put young people on
the wrong learning track. As
long as they lack the political courage, the Union and the Council of
Europe would do better to remain silent, in all languages of Europe."
Abram de Swaan, "Day of languages: Celebrating many tongues", International Herald Tribune, September 25, 2003. [Note: this reasoning also applies quite well to the UN, first as it insists on extensive courses to train its staff in third, fourth, or fifth languages which they rarely use, and second in publishing its main documents in vast quantities in six languages (beyond the official "working languages", English and French) although, as noted elsewhere, they usually go unread -- in both instances imposing significant extra UN operating costs.] "Saying the failure to deliver AIDS drugs to
impoverished people is so grave that it has become a global health
emergency, the World Health Organization [WHO] is beginning an ambitious
plan to provide such drugs to three million people by the end of
2005. The new plan comes two months after [Dr. Jong
Wook] Lee became director general of [WHO], which was criticized for its
slow response to the early stages of the AIDS epidemic. After inner turmoil
. the UN
created a new agency, UNAIDS
. to coordinate a global
effort. [WHO] had seldom functioned actively
. until
[it] coordinated the response to the SARS epidemic and declared it a
global health emergency. That experience taught WHO the importance of
acting quickly and that 'we must change the way we think and change the
way we act.' Lee said. 'Business as usual will not work' in the AIDS
pandemic, he said. As Lee shifts the agency into high gear, he has
given the [AIDS treatment program] until December to develop standardized
guidelines. 'We hope to be
working in all 24 countries by Dec. 1", Kim said." Lawrence K. Altman, "UN plans big push on AIDS drugs: Health agency seeks to reach 3 million people by 2005", INew York Times, September 22, 2003. [Note: WHO, which seems recently to be the best
performer among all UN system agencies, is now emphasizing "rapid
response", a systematic implementation plan, and coordinated global
coverage in several key areas.
If only the UN, and particularly the Security Council and General
Assembly, could develop some similar sense of coordinated and targeted
operational urgency as well.] Useful sources
Gordenker, Leon, The UN tangle: policy
formation, reform, and reorganization, WPF Reports number 12, The
World Peace Foundation, Cambridge, Mass (USA), 1996. Elmandjra, Mahdi, The United Nations System: An
analysis, Faber and Faber, London, 1973.
Weiss, Thomas G., ed., Beyond UN subcontracting:
Task-sharing with regional security arrangements and service-providing
NGOs, St. Martins, New York, 1998.
Applebaum, Anne, "Is the UN really necessary?", 31
July 1993, and "An anarchy of abounding acronyms", 12 November 1994, pp.
9-11, both in The
Spectator (UK). Fomerand, Jaques, "Recent UN textbooks: Suggestions from an old-fashioned practitioner", Global Governance, 83(2002), 383-403.
Moore, Mike, "Multilateral meltdown: It's time for another walk in the Bretton Woods", Foreign Policy, March/April 2003, pp. 74-75. Spiers, Ronald I., "Reforming the United Nations," in Roger A. Coate, ed., U.S. policy and the future of the United Nations, Twentieth Century Fund, New York, 1994. A new United Nations structure for global economic cooperation: Report of the Group of experts on the structure of the United Nations system, United Nations, E/AC.62/9, New York, 1975. United Nations, Report of the Group of
High-Level Intergovernmental Experts to Review the Efficiency of the
Administrative and Financial Functioning of the United Nations,
A/41/49, 1986.
Galtung, Johan, Ch. 1, "On the anthropology of the
United Nations System", in Pitt, David and Thomas G. Weiss, eds., The
nature of United Nations Bureaucracies, Croon Helm, London &
Sydney, 1986, pp. 1-22.
Hill, Martin, The United Nations system: Coordinating its economic and social work, under the auspices of the United Nations Institute for Training and Research, Cambridge University, London, 1978.
Joint Inspection Unit, "Extrabudgetary resources of the United Nations", UN document A/45/797, 1990.
Summary Brochure, findings and recommendations, Crisis and Reform in United Nations financing, Global Policy Project on U.N. Funding, United Nations Association of the United States (UNA-USA), 1997.
Meron,
Theodor, Ch. 7, "The view from Geneva," in The United Nations
Secretariat: The rules and the practice, Lexington Books, D.C. Heath,
Lexington, MA and Toronto, 1977, pp.133-140.
Mendez, Ruben P., "Financing the United Nations and the international public sector: Problems and reform", Global Governance 3(1997), 283-310.
Barnett, Michael N., and Finnemore, Martha, "The politics, power, and pathologies of international organizations", International Organization, vol. 53, no. 4, Autumn 1999, pp. 699-732.
Patrick, Stewart, "The check is in the mail: Improving the delivery and coordination of post conflict assistance", Global Governance 6(2000), 61-94.
Resources on the UN and UN finance, at www.globalpolicy.org/finance/index/htm
United Nations Management and Decision-Making Project UNA-USA, The U.N. in profile: How its resources are distributed, by Maurice Bertrand, United Nations Association of the United States of America, New York, 1986.
United Nations Management and Decision-Making Project UNA-USA, Fairness and accountability in U.N. financial decision-making, by Frederick K. Lister, United Nations Association of the United States of America, New York, 1986.
Bertrand, Maurice, "A critical analysis of the efficiency of the United Nations system", in Dicke, Klaus, and Hόfner, Klaus, eds., Die Leistungsfδhigkeit des UN-Systems: Politische Kritik und wissenschaftliche Analyse, Deutsched Gesellschaft fόr die Vereinten Nationen, UN-Texte 37, UNO-Verlag, Bonn, Germany, 1987, pp. 64-71.
Dicke,
Klaus, and Hόfner, Klaus, eds., Die Leistungsfδhigkeit des UN-Systems:
Politische Kritik und wissenschaftliche Analyse, Deutsche Gesellschaft fόr
die Vereinten Nationen, UN-Texte 37, UNO-Verlag, Bonn, Germany,
1987. [Note:
A collection of articles, and a bibliography and items on UN efficiency,
financial crisis, and reform processes in German or English, pp.
130-132.] Willetts, Peter, "From 'consultative arrangements'
to 'partnership': The changing status of NGOs in diplomacy at the UN",
Global Governance 6 (2000), 191-212.
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